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Joseph Smith Jr. December 23, — June 27, was an American religious leader and founder of Mormonism and the Latter Day Saint movement. When he was 24, Smith published the Book of Mormon. By the time of his death, 14 years later, he had attracted tens of thousands of followers and founded a religion that continues to the present with millions of global adherents. Smith was born in Sharon, Vermont.
Byhe had moved with his family to western New Yorkthe site of intense religious revivalism during the Second Great Awakening. Smith said he experienced a series of visions, christi adams masters thesis, including one in during which he saw "two christi adams masters thesis whom he eventually described as God the Father and Jesus Christand another in in which an angel directed him to a buried book of golden plates inscribed with a Judeo-Christian history of an ancient American civilization.
InSmith published what he said was an English translation of these plates called the Book of Mormon. The same christi adams masters thesis he organized the Church of Christcalling it a restoration of the early Christian church. Members of the church were later called "Latter Day Saints" or "Mormons", and Smith announced a revelation in which renamed the church as The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. InSmith and his followers moved west, planning to build a communalistic American Zion.
They first gathered in Kirtland, Ohioand established an outpost in Independence, Missouriwhich was intended to be Zion's "center place", christi adams masters thesis.
During the s, Smith sent out missionaries, published revelations, and supervised construction of the Kirtland Temple. The collapse of the church-sponsored Kirtland Safety Society Anti-Banking Company and violent skirmishes with non-Mormon Missourians caused Smith and his followers to establish a new settlement at Nauvoo, Illinoiswhere he became a spiritual and political leader.
Inwhen the Nauvoo Expositor criticized Smith's power and practice of polygamy, Smith and the Nauvoo city council ordered the destruction of their printing press, inflaming anti-Mormon sentiment.
Smith published many revelations and other texts that his followers regard as scripture. His teachings discuss the nature of God, cosmology, family structures, political organization, and christi adams masters thesis collectivism. His followers regard him as a prophet comparable to Moses and Elijahand several religious denominations consider themselves the continuation of the church that he organized, including The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Community of Christ.
Smith was born on December 23,on the border between South Royalton and Sharon, Vermontto Lucy Mack Smith and her husband Joseph Smith Sr. At the age of seven Smith suffered christi adams masters thesis crippling bone infection and, after receiving surgery, used crutches for three years.
The region was a hotbed of religious enthusiasm during the Second Great Awakening. As a teenager, he may have been sympathetic to Methodism. Years later, Smith wrote that he had received a vision that resolved his religious confusion. Until the s, however, christi adams masters thesis, Smith's accounts of the vision were largely unknown to most Mormons, [26] and Smith himself may have originally considered it a personal conversion. According to his later accounts, Smith was visited by an angel named Moroniwhile praying one night in Smith said that this angel revealed the location of a buried book made of golden platesas well as other artifacts, including a breastplate and a set of interpreters composed of two seer stones set in a frame, which had been hidden in a hill near his home.
Meanwhile, the Smith family faced financial hardship, due in part to the death of Smith's oldest brother Alvinchristi adams masters thesis, who had assumed a leadership role in the family. While boarding at the Hale house in Harmony, Pennsylvania, Smith met and began courting Emma Hale. When Smith proposed marriage, Emma's father, Isaac Hale objected, in part because he believed Smith had no means to support Emma.
Later christi adams masters thesis year, when Smith promised to abandon treasure seeking, Hale offered to let the couple live on his property in Harmony and help Smith get started in business.
Smith made his last visit to the hill on September 22,taking Emma with him. He said the angel commanded him not to show the plates to anyone else, but to translate them and publish their translation. Smith said the translation was a religious record of Middle-Eastern indigenous Americans[40] and were engraved in an unknown language, called reformed Egyptian. He also told associates that he was capable of reading and translating them. Although Smith had left his treasure hunting company, his former associates believed he had double crossed them and taken the golden plates for himself, which they believed should be joint property.
In Octoberchristi adams masters thesis, Smith and Emma moved from Palmyra to Harmony now Oaklandchristi adams masters thesis, Pennsylvania, aided by a relatively prosperous neighbor, Martin Harris, christi adams masters thesis. In FebruaryHarris arrived to assist Smith by transcribing his dictation. Harris also took a sample of the characters to a few prominent scholars, including Charles Anthon, christi adams masters thesis.
Harris said Anthon initially authenticated the characters and their translation, but then retracted his opinion after learning that Smith claimed to have received the plates from an angel.
In any event, Harris returned to Harmony in Aprilseemingly convinced, christi adams masters thesis, and continued as Smith's scribe. However, by JuneHarris began having doubts about the project, christi adams masters thesis, fueled in part by his wife's skepticism. Harris persuaded Smith to let him take the existing pages of manuscript to Palmyra to show a few family members, including his wife.
Smith was devastated not only by the loss of the manuscript but the loss of his first son who had died shortly after birth. During this period, Smith briefly attended Methodist meetings with his wife, until a cousin of hers objected to inclusion of a "practicing necromancer" on the Methodist class roll.
Smith said that the angel returned the plates to him in September Although Smith had previously refused to show the plates to anyone, he told Martin Harris, Oliver Cowdery, and David Whitmer that they would be allowed to see them.
Later, a group of Eight Witnesses — composed of male members of the Whitmer and Smith families — issued a statement that they had been shown the golden plates by Smith. The completed work, titled the Book of Mormonchristi adams masters thesis, was published in Palmyra on March 26,by printer E. Soon after, on April 6,Smith and his followers formally organized the Church of Christand small branches were established in Palmyra, Fayette, and Colesville, New York, christi adams masters thesis.
In probable reference to this period of flight, Smith said that PeterJamesand John had appeared to him and had ordained him and Cowdery to a higher priesthood. Smith's authority was undermined christi adams masters thesis Oliver Cowdery, Hiram Pageand other church members also claimed to receive revelations. On their way to Missouri, Cowdery's party passed through northeastern Ohio, where Sidney Rigdon and over a hundred followers of his variety of Campbellite Restorationism converted to Mormonism, more than doubling the size of the church.
When Smith moved to Kirtland, Ohio in Januaryhe encountered a religious culture that included enthusiastic demonstrations of spiritual giftsincluding fits and trances, rolling on the ground, and speaking in tongues.
Rigdon's followers had also been practicing a form of communalismwhich Smith adopted, christi adams masters thesis it the United Order. Converts poured into Kirtland.
By the summer ofthere were fifteen hundred to two thousand Mormons in the vicinity, christi adams masters thesis, many expecting Smith to lead them shortly to the Millennial kingdom.
In Jackson County, christi adams masters thesis Missouri residents resented the Mormon newcomers for both political and religious reasons.
Smith advised them to bear the violence patiently until after they were attacked multiple times, after which they could fight back. Smith ended the communitarian experiment and changed the name of the church to the "Church of Latter Day Saints", before christi adams masters thesis a small paramilitary expedition called Zion's Campto aid the Missouri Mormons.
After the Camp returned, Smith drew heavily from its participants to establish five governing bodies in the church, all originally of equal authority to check one another. Among these five groups was a quorum of twelve apostles. In latea series of internal disputes led to the collapse of the Kirtland Mormon community. He was also being accused by Assistant President of the Christi adams masters thesis Oliver Cowdery [88] of engaging in a sexual relationship with a teenage servant in his home, christi adams masters thesis, Fanny Alger.
In Januarychristi adams masters thesis, Smith and other church leaders created a joint stock companycalled the Kirtland Safety Society Anti-Banking Company, to act as a quasi-bank; the company issued bank notes capitalized in part by real estate. Smith was held responsible for the failure, and there were widespread defections from the church, including many of Smith's closest advisers. BySmith had abandoned plans to redeem Zion in Jackson County, and after Smith and Rigdon arrived in Missouri, the town of Far West became the new "Zion".
During this time, a church council expelled many of the oldest and most prominent leaders of the church, including John Whitmer, David Whitmer, W. Phelpsand Oliver Cowdery. Political and religious differences between old Missourians and newly arriving Mormon settlers christi adams masters thesis tensions between the two groups, much as they had years earlier in Jackson County.
By this time, Smith's experiences with mob violence led him to believe that his faith's survival required greater militancy against anti-Mormons.
In a speech given at the town's Fourth of July celebration, Rigdon declared that Mormons would no longer tolerate persecution by the Missourians and spoke of a "war of extermination" if Mormons were attacked. They unleashed a flood of anti-Mormon rhetoric in newspapers and in stump speeches given during the election campaign.
On August 6,non-Mormons in Gallatin tried to prevent Mormons from voting, [] and the election-day scuffles initiated the Mormon War. Non-Mormon vigilantes raided and burned Mormon farms, while Danites and other Mormons pillaged non-Mormon towns. Governor Lilburn Boggs then ordered that the Mormons be "exterminated or driven from the state". The following day, the Christi adams masters thesis Day Saints surrendered to 2, christi adams masters thesis, state troops and agreed to forfeit their property and leave the state.
Smith's months in prison with an ill and whining Rigdon strained their relationship. Meanwhile, Brigham Youngthe president of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, rose to prominence when he organized the move of about 14, Mormon refugees to Illinois and eastern Iowa. Smith bore his imprisonment stoically. Understanding that he was effectively on trial before his own people, many of whom considered him a fallen prophet, he wrote a personal defense and an apology for the activities of the Danites.
Many American newspapers criticized Missouri for the Haun's Mill massacre and the state's expulsion of the Latter Day Saints. Illinois accepted Mormon refugees who gathered along the banks of the Mississippi River, [] where Smith purchased high-priced, swampy woodland in the hamlet of Commerce. Smith also attracted a few wealthy and influential converts, including John C. Bennettthe Illinois quartermaster general. InSmith began revealing the doctrine of plural marriage to a few of his closest male associates, including Bennett, who used it as an excuse to seduce numerous women wed and unwed.
In retaliation, Bennett left Smith's following and wrote "lurid exposés of life in Nauvoo". The early Nauvoo years were a period of doctrinal innovation. Smith introduced baptism for the dead inand inchristi adams masters thesis, construction began on the Nauvoo Temple as a place for recovering lost ancient knowledge. For women, Smith introduced the Relief Societya service club and sorority within which Smith predicted women would receive "the keys of the kingdom ".
No longer envisioning the building of Zion in Nauvoo, Smith viewed Zion as encompassing all of North and South America, with Mormon settlements being " stakes " of Zion's metaphorical tent. By mid, popular opinion had turned against the Mormons. After an unknown assailant shot and wounded Missouri governor Lilburn Boggs in Mayanti-Mormons circulated rumors that Smith's bodyguard, Porter Rockwellwas the shooter.
Certain he would be killed if he ever returned to Missouri, Smith went into hiding twice during the next five months, before the U. district attorney for Illinois argued that Smith's extradition to Missouri would be unconstitutional.
In Juneenemies of Smith convinced a reluctant Illinois Governor Thomas Ford to extradite Smith to Missouri on an old charge of treason. Christi adams masters thesis law officers arrested Smith, but were intercepted by a party of Mormons before they could reach Missouri. Smith was then released on a writ of habeas corpus from the Nauvoo municipal court. In Christi adams masters thesisSmith petitioned Congress to make Nauvoo an independent territory with the right to call out federal troops in its defense.
After receiving noncommittal or negative responses, Smith announced his own independent candidacy for President of the United States, suspended regular proselytizingand sent out the Quorum of the Twelve and hundreds of other political missionaries.
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